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- Sociology, English
- Diversity Within English
- In order to understand how language variation descriptors are used, we first must understand what language
- variation is. We can say that the U.S. is linguistically diverse because of the multitude of languages spoken here,
- but we can also find diversity within these languages. All languages have both dialectical variations and registral
- variations. These variations, or dialects, can differ in lexicon, phonology, and/or syntax from the Standard
- Language that we often think of as îcorrect╣ Language, although they are not necessarily less proper than, say,
- Standard English. It depends on where, by whom, and in what situation the dialect is used as to whether or not it
- is appropriate.
- Most people are familiar with regional dialects, such as Boston, Brooklyn, or Southern. These types of
- variations usually occur because of immigration and settlement patterns. People tend to seek out others like
- themselves. Regional variations tend to become more pronounced as the speech community is more isolated by
- physical geography, i.e. mountain ranges, rivers. Linguists have done extensive studies on regional dialects,
- producing detailed Linguistic Atlases. Many linguists can tell where a person is from just by knowing whether a
- person carries groceries home from the supermarket in a paper bag or from the grocery store in a paper sack (Yule
- 184). And the person who comes home from the supermarket with a paper sack serves to remind us that
- language variation is not a discrete, but rather a continuous variable. Characteristics of the dialect are more
- pronounced in the center of the speech community and tend to be less discernible at the outer boundaries, where
- they often overlap other regional dialects.
- Within, and between, these regional variations we find the social dialects. The primary social factors that
- influence dialects are class, education, occupation, ethnicity, sex, and age (Ferguson 52, Yule 191). And social
- dialects can vary on any or all three descriptor levels; syntax or grammar, lexicon or vocabulary, and phonetics or
- pronunciation. Social dialects are also where the described differences are often defined as stigmatized or
- nonstigmatized (Ferguson 52). Stigmatized items include use of the double negative (grammar), substituting the d
- sound for the leading th and losing sounds like the middle r and the final g in ing (pronunciation), and stylistic
- choices such as puke for vomit (vocabulary).
- There are three main types of reactions to these socially significant items.
- 1. Social indicators - the speaker, and often the listener, is not aware that these items are socially
- significant in revealing one╣s social status, so the speaker makes no attempt to avoid them when speaking in a
- more formal style. This would be someone who wants to take your picture, rather than your photograph.
- 2. Social markers - the speaker is sensitive to these items and will avoid them in a more formal style of
- speech, although the speaker may not be fully aware of why. Examples would be avoiding contractions, and
- phrases like gonna or didja. Social markers are much more prevalent in American English than social indicators.
- 3. Social stereotypes - even speakers who regularly use these types of dialects are fully aware of the stigma
- attached to them. Social stereotypes would include the copula deletion in Black English, and the loosing of sounds
- a la Joe Pesci that produce phrases such as doze tree guys.
- Closely related to these social class factors are education and occupation. While occupations often
- produce their own jargons, a person╣s occupation will also determine what style of speech is used. A lawyer and a
- laborer would not be likely to use the same dialect on the job. Likewise, a person with little education is not likely
- to use the same style of speech as a college professor. This does not imply that the lawyer and college professor
- speak a îbetter╣ variety of English, but because of more exposure to, and familiarity with written English, which is
- usually Standard English, they tend to speak that way, also. And because many people think of Standard English
- as the norm, they also think of it as the more perfect English.
- Ethnicity often produces language variation, particularly among recent immigrants. But this would not
- explain the endurance of Black English and Chicano English. The rather widespread survival of these dialects
- seems to stem from the social isolation of the speakers (discrimination, segregation), which tends to make the
- variations more obvious. Because the group itself is stigmatized its dialect is stigmatized by association. Thus, the
- deletion of the copula is considered îbad╣ speech, although Arabic and Russian also have structures that leave out
- the copula and they are not îbad╣ (Yule 192).
- The sex, or gender, of the speaker has an impact on the selection of vocabulary. Dialect surveys have
- concluded that women are more apt to use prestigious forms of speech, while males tend to use more stigmatized
- variants. Females are often the first to adopt new prestige variants and introduce them into a speech community,
- also (Ferguson 158).
- Age factors in language variation in two ways. First, there is the generational differences. As the younger
- members of a speech community adopt new variants, the older members may not be affected, opting instead to
- use their traditional dialects. To compare the differences between the old and the new variations is to compare
- changes from one time period to another. The second way that age produces change is over time, to correspond
- with various stages of an individual╣s life. This is particularly evident in teen slang. While this kind of slang does
- not generally hold over from one generation to the next, the teens that used it generally do not carry it into middle
- age, either. Far out and groovy were perfectly acceptable vocabulary for a young adult in the 1960╣s, but no one
- wants to hear their grandparents use those terms.
- Styles of speech, as shown above, cut across all the other factors, thereby further increasing language
- diversity. Style ranges from formal to informal with gradient variation in between. Formal speech is used when we
- are paying close attention to our speech. The more attention paid, the more formal the style. Style effects speech
- throughout a person╣s lifetime, but there is less style variation found among young people and older people. Young
- people, particularly adolescents, tend to use informal speech; probably because they are not comfortable with more
- formal styles. Older people tend to use the style they have become accustomed to, be it formal or informal, with
- less variation in style than their adult children (Ferguson 59).
- Another variable that is similar to style is register. This is a situational factor. Registers vary in vocabulary,
- grammar, and pronunciation. The legal register is quite formal, the scholarly journal register can be quite formal
- (and boring), but other registers, such as the way we talk to babies or animals are quite informal. Registers tend to
- be more rigid than stylistic variations. After all, in what other situation would a person use vocabulary and
- sentences like, Coocheecoo! I got your little toe, or, You╣re just the cutest little thing,. Oh, yes you are. You're
- just the cutest little thing I ever did see! except when talking to a very small baby? Register variations are
- qualitative, qualitative being when the linguistic forms are not found in other variations. Differences between other
- dialects are often quantitative. Certain elements of one dialect are found in other dialects, to a greater or lesser
- degree or frequency. Using in╣ for ing, as in goin╣ is universal across status groups, but it is found almost twice as
- often in the lower working class than in the lower middle class, and almost four times more than in the upper
- middle class (Ferguson 61).
- With all these different variables that intersect and overlap with the different dialect variations is is a wonder
- that any sense can be made of American English at all. But there two other important point to remember.
- Language universals such as displacement, arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission, discreteness and
- duality are unique to human language (Yule 22) and provides a base or norm for measuring variations. Implicational
- relationships provide a way of measuring relative distance between the different variations and also serve as a
- means to predict changes in individual dialects (Ferguson 66).
-
- Works Consulted
- Ferguson, Charles A., and Shirley Brice Heath, eds. Language in the USA. Cambridge: Cambridge UP,
- 1981.
- Piatt, Bill. Only English? Law and Language Policy in the United States. Albuquerque: U of New Mexico
- P, 1990.
- Yule, George. The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1985.
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